Types of parental mediation and problematic
mobile phone use in third grade Primary School pupils
Tipos de mediación parental y uso
problemático del móvil en escolares de tercer ciclo de Educación Primaria
Dr. Antonio Daniel García-Rojas. Profesor
Titular de Universidad. Universidad de Huelva. España
Dra. María del
Pilar Gutiérrez-Arena. Profesora
Contratada Doctora. Universidad de Córdoba. España
Dr. Ángel
Hernando-Gómez. Profesor
Titular de Universidad. Universidad de Huelva. España
Cinta
Prieto-Medel. Doctoranda.
Universidad de Huelva. España
Received: 2024/04/25 Reviewed: 2024/09/10 Accepted: 2024/01/25 Online First: 2024/02/27 Published: 2025/05/01
How
to cite:
García-Rojas, A.D.,
Gutiérrez-Arena, M.P., Hernando-Gómez, A. & Prieto-Medel, C. (2025). Types
of parental mediation and problematic mobile phone use in third grade Primary
School pupils [Tipos de mediación parental y uso problemático del móvil en
escolares de tercer ciclo de Educación Primaria]. Pixel-Bit. Revista de Medios y Educación, 73, art.1 https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.106808
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, the possession and use of mobile phones by
minors comes at increasingly early ages, and supervision and regulation by
families is increasingly necessary. Parental mediation is an additional
competence to be learned and put into practice. Using a quantitative,
descriptive, non-experimental, correlational and multivariate methodological
design, a study was carried out with a sample of 273 students in the final
cycle of primary education. Significant differences were found between the
independent variables and the types of parental mediation: sex/gender only
influences active mediation; the father's course and studies have an impact on
technical mediation; device ownership affects co-use and the mother's level of
studies has an impact on all types of parental mediation. Regarding problematic
smartphone use, it is observed that having one's own phone, the time spent
using it daily and the mother's level of education are determining factors. The
need to train families in parental mediation in order to
reduce and avoid the possible risks involved in the use of mobile devices by
minors is evident.
RESUMEN
En la actualidad, cada vez es más
precoz la tenencia y uso del móvil por parte de menores, y más necesaria la
supervisión y regulación por parte de las familias. La mediación parental es
ahora una competencia más, que se debe aprender y poner en práctica. Mediante
un diseño metodológico cuantitativo, descriptivo, no experimental,
correlacional y multivariante, se realizó un estudio con una muestra de 273
estudiantes de último ciclo de Educación Primaria. Se encontraron diferencias
significativas entre las variables independientes y los tipos de mediación
parental: el sexo influye únicamente en la mediación activa, el curso y los
estudios del padre impactan en la mediación técnica, la tenencia de dispositivo
afecta al co-uso y el nivel de los estudios de la madre repercute en todos los tipos
de mediación parental. Con respecto al uso problemático del móvil, se observa
que tener móvil propio, el tiempo de uso diario y el nivel de estudios de la
madre son determinantes. Se evidencia la necesidad de formar a las familias en
mediación parental para reducir y evitar los posibles riesgos que conlleva el
uso del dispositivo móvil por parte de menores.
KEYWORDS· PALABRAS CLAVES
Parental mediation; ICTs; smartphone; problematic
uses; Primary Education
Mediación parental; TIC; smartphone; usos
problemáticos; Educación Primaria
1. Introduction
According to the latest data available from the
National Institute of Statistics (INE, 2022), the percentage of children
between 10 and 15 years old who have their own mobile phone is 68.7% (21.6% 10
years old, 44.7% 11 years old and 67.5% 12 years old) and those who use the
Internet from home are 97% (92.5% 10 years old, 96.6% 11 years old and 95.9% 12
years old). These data evidence the increasingly widespread use of the Internet
by children, via their own mobile phones, at ever younger ages.
Beyond the figures, in a hypermedia society where the
indiscriminate use of multiple screens predominates from increasingly younger
ages, the responsibility of families to educate children in the use and
consumption of the mobile devices they use at home is patently obvious. The
family plays a decisive role, and not only with this educational task, as they
must also have the minimum knowledge that the situation demands.
This is why it is necessary to know how families are
educated about the use of mobile phones, in particular the type of parental
mediation available to minors and whether this influences their problematic
smartphone use.
One notable work on the issue was carried out by
Jiménez-Morales et al. (2020),
highlighting the level of studies and the professional profile of the parents
and their direct influence on the consumption of content from mobile devices by
their children. These authors state that parents' low level of education,
together with a lower professional category, is linked to greater freedom for
schoolchildren when using mobile phones.
In turn, Solera-Gómez et al. (2022), concluded that girls are more avid smartphone users
and present more problematic uses than boys, and also
reported that around 90% of 11 to 15-year-olds have their own devices with an
Internet connection and, at the same time, a lack of parental control.
1.1. Problematic smartphone use
In our society, there is already a notable precocity
in the use and possession of smartphones, while the task of supervision and
mediation by the main caregivers is scarce. (Sola Reche et al. 2019). As noted by González-Sanmamed et al. (2023) or González Isasi and Medina Morales (2018), the use
of mobile devices can bring benefits and opportunities in terms of educational
utility, learning acquisition and the positive entertainment they can provide,
but they can also create dangers. Children can encounter many problems when
interacting with their favourite device, which, according to the Association
for Media Research (AIMC, 2019), is the smartphone.
The fact that vulnerable children are attracted to
screens is nothing new, and as a plus point, based on what is stated by Besolí et al. (2018), primary school pupils
have fewer problematic uses than those in secondary and baccalaureate/high
school education. However, this does not mean that they are free of them. But
what problems could be caused by inappropriate mobile phone use?
Although the most frequently mentioned consequences
are cyberbullying (Wright et al.
2021), addictive disorders (Menéndez-García et
al. 2020), nomophobia and the new uses of mobile phones have promoted
transformations in the identity of users and can even cause economic
repercussions paid for by parents (Carbonell et al. 2012).
As observed in García-Rojas et al. (2023), this digital tool, within the reach of schoolchildren,
can lead to social isolation, reduced leisure and sporting activities,
disrupted mealtimes and bedtimes, and poorer academic performance. On school
performance, Milková et al. (2018)
detected that in classrooms that pupils' smartphone addiction leads to
inattention to school sessions and continuous distractions.
Likewise, Olivella-Cirici et al. (2023), cited problems such as deterioration of family
relationships, anxiety and/or depression due to concerns about
self-presentation on social networks, insomnia, sedentary lifestyles and
multiple addictions. This is compounded
by the findings of García-Oliva et al.
(2017), which incorporate problems related to untrammelled Internet access. On
the one hand, gambling and online shopping and, on the other hand, the search
for erotic websites and the viewing of sexual content. Focusing on teenagers,
De la Villa Moral and Suárez (2017) point to problems in relational and
communicative uses, highlighting the lie about the time spent on mobile phones
and the management of stress in a significant way.
In proportion, according to Santana-Vega et al. (2019), the greater the time and
frequency of use, the more problematic uses that may occur, which may include a
phobia of feeling excluded and the decline of filial-parental communication.
For all these reasons, we can affirm the importance of parental control over
the physical possession of mobile phones by minors, with family support and
supervision being essential to confront the dark and troubling side of their
use.
1.2. Parental mediation
In this world of multi-screens and hyper-connectivity,
being a 21st century parent or caregiver of a child brings new skills, and as
noted by Tartakowsky et al. (2023),
parental mediation, both face-to-face and virtual, is now one more parental
competence to put into practice.
Although in the scientific literature the main focus is on the adolescence stage, according to Grané I
Oró (2021), families should also accompany their children from early childhood
and raise them taking into account the digital and mediatised context in which
they grow and develop.
Faced with this new role as mediators, as stated by
Condeza et al. (2019), most legal
guardians —more mothers than fathers— face the challenge of media literacy, a
reality that did not exist in their childhood years and for which they begin to
implement a series of strategies and measures, some of which are based on rewards
and punishment.
In terms of strategies, according to Martínez et al. (2020), Spanish families opt more
for enabling strategies, i.e. those that have a "fundamentally
communicative nature and promote or help children's Internet safety" (p.70), and also show greater control over girls' use of ICTs
than that of boys.
In line with the above, we find the parental mediation
styles worked on by Bartau-Rojas et al.
(2020), who highlight the tendency towards the instructive style (advising,
explaining the workings and reminding of the rules) and mention another quite
frequent approach, the shared style (witnessing the use, jointly using the
device without introducing criticism or commenting on its effects and
supervising the end of use).
Regarding measures to regulate the use of smartphones
by children in primary education, according to Muñoz-Carril et al. (2023), the choice and setting of
a timetable together with restriction by means of passwords and establishing
limits on Internet use are highlighted.
With regard to the types of
parental mediation, we can highlight the four types of mediation identified by
López Castro et al. (2021) in
relation to the use of these regulation, control, communication and support
strategies and measures (p.97):
·
Negligent parental mediation (low degree of
regulation-control and communication-support)
·
Permissive-indulgent parental mediation (low degree of
regulation-control, but high communication-support)
·
Restrictive-authoritarian parental mediation (high
degree of regulation-control, but low degree of communication-support)
·
Democratic parental mediation (high degree of
regulation-control and communication-support)
In the light of all this, a distinction must also be
made between different family models in relation to this issue, as not all
parents play this role in the same way. Thus, the categorisation provided by
Torrecillas-Lacave et al. (2017) is
that of “absent concerned, guiding concerned, permissive concerned and
controlling concerned” (p. 669).
On the effects of these types of family intervention
in relation to children’s smartphone use, following Pérez-Sánchez and
Brenes-Peralta (2022), we can highlight the favouring of good use (mainly
through active mediation) and the consequent inhibition of inappropriate use
(usually through monitoring).
The relationship between parental mediation practices
and the problematic use of digital devices has been addressed by different
authors in the international scope. In the case of Sada Garibay et al. (2024), a connection was found
with children's commercial content consumption behaviour, the level of parental
knowledge about advertising and the type of mediation, with the most informed
children applying better strategies to mediate.
For their part, Efrati et al. (2024) showed that children's inappropriate use improves
when there is greater communication from mothers about smartphone use, parental
support and shared use by everyone. This is backed in the study by Huang et al. (2024), who also claim that the
child-parent communication strategy moderates schoolchildren's self-control and
reduces dependence on the devices in question. Moreover, Erus et al. (2025) highlighted the importance
of parental roles and practices after revealing that undesirable smartphone use
has a negative correlation with conscious parenting and subjective vitality,
while it has a positive correlation with parental stress. However, Bartau-Rojas
et al. (2018) noted that families'
perception of their children's use of mobile phones —enrolled in primary
education— is particularly tinged with pessimism and that there is a shared
difficulty in encouraging responsibility and criticism of content consumption.
For this reason, and for proper mediation to take
place, it is necessary that families become aware of the risks and possible
problematic usage that may arise from screen exposure, take an interest in it
and train themselves —perfecting their digital skills and their media and
parental competence— in order to learn or improve the management of devices in
their homes (Poyato López et al.
2023; Ramírez-García et al. 2020).
1.3. Objectives
The aim of this study is to investigate the type of
parental mediation available to pupils in the third cycle (3rd
grade) of primary education in relation to the use of mobile devices at home,
and whether this, together with sex, year, parents' level of studies, whether
or not they own their own mobile or how much time they use it per day, are
predictive variables of children's problematic use of smartphones.
The hypotheses that can be derived from this second
objective are linked to the factors listed below: 1) Sex, year and parents'
level of education are explanatory factors for problematic mobile phone use; 2)
Having one's own smartphone or not, as well as the length of time spent using
it daily are factors associated with children's problematic mobile phone use;3)
The type of parental mediation exercised by families and perceived by children
is a factor that could explain children's problematic smartphone use.
2. Methodology
The methodological design is quantitative,
descriptive, non-experimental, correlational and multivariate. There is no
manipulation of the variables.
Non-probabilistic, casual convenience type sampling
was carried out. The sample consisted of 273 students in the last cycle (third
grade) of Primary Education in the province of Huelva. The descriptive
variables of the sample are shown in Table 1.
The research technique used was the survey and the
data gathering instrument was the questionnaire, which included
socio-demographic variables such as sex, course year, and parents' educational
level. Two tests were also included:
-
Types of parental mediation (dichotomous yes/no and
don't know questions). Questions on the perception of parental knowledge of the
child's actions on the Internet. Four types are distinguished: Mediation
designated co-use, which includes all activities that are carried out with
media and shared between parents and children; active Internet safety
mediation, where parents explain and discuss the content of the media their
children access; monitoring, mediation that focuses on checking or reviewing
children's online activities; and technical mediation, which consists of
restricting online content or time spent online by applying technical bans or
filters. This is adapted by Ramírez and Gómez (2020) from a questionnaire, the
EU kids online II, developed by Livingstone and Haddon (2009), applied in 21
countries within the European Union framework.
-
Problematic smartphone use (5 levels, from strongly
disagree to strongly agree), scale adapted to Spanish by López-Fernández et al. (2012) of the Mobile Phone
Problem Use Scale by Bianchi and Phillips (2005), where experts were involved
in a series of phases to achieve cultural and semantic equivalence of the tool,
thus ensuring the original validity of the instrument. This scale has been
widely used to detect problematic mobile phone use in minors, for example, by
Ruiz de Miguel et al. (2021).
-
Table 1
Descriptive
variables of the sample
|
Variables |
Frequency |
Percentage |
||
|
Sex |
Male |
144 |
52.7 |
|
|
Female |
128 |
46.9 |
||
|
Other |
1 |
0.4 |
||
|
Course |
Primary 5 |
110 |
40.3 |
|
|
Primary 6 |
163 |
59.7 |
||
|
Education level |
Primary |
Father |
9 |
3.3 |
|
Mother |
3 |
1.1 |
||
|
Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) |
Father |
17 |
6.2 |
|
|
Mother |
19 |
7 |
||
|
Baccalaureate |
Father |
17 |
6.2 |
|
|
Mother |
17 |
6.2 |
||
|
Intermediate VT |
Father |
13 |
4.8 |
|
|
Mother |
10 |
3.7 |
||
|
Advanced VT |
Father |
21 |
7.7 |
|
|
Mother |
22 |
8.1 |
||
|
University |
Father |
83 |
30.4 |
|
|
Mother |
98 |
35.9 |
||
|
Don't know |
Father |
113 |
41.4 |
|
|
Mother |
104 |
38.1 |
||
The reliability of these tests in the present research
are expressed in Table 2. An acceptable value of reliability through the omega
coefficient should be between.70 and.90 (Campo-Arias & Oviedo, 2008),
although in some circumstances values higher than.65 can be accepted (Katz,
2006). The questionnaire was forwarded to the participating schools in digital
format. The data collected were processed with the SPSS v.29 statistical
program and the degree of statistical validity was placed at p<.05. The
non-normality of the responses made it advisable to use non-parametric tests in
the data analysis. Relationships between variables were analysed using
Spearman's bivariate correlations. Finally, the ability of the variables to
predict problematic smartphone use was analysed by applying Multiple Linear
Regression (MLR) considering compliance with the regression assumptions (Pardo
& Ruiz, 2005).
Table 2
Test reliability
analysis
|
Tests |
MacDonald’s
omega |
Nº of items |
|
Parental mediation types in smartphone use Ramírez and Gómez (2020) |
.694 |
19 items |
|
Problematic smartphone use López- Fernández et al. (2012) |
.901 |
27 items |
3. Analysis and
Results
When asked if they had their own smartphone, 77.3% answered
yes and 22.7% answered no. Some 24.5% regularly use their mobile phone for
between 0 and 30 minutes a day, 29.3% for between 30 minutes and one hour, 33%
for between one and three hours and 13.2% for more than three hours.
A descriptive analysis of the two tests was carried
out for both tests. First, the problematic use of smartphones by children
(table 3). For the classification of problematic use, we chose the statistical
criterion used in the research by López-Fernández et al. (2012) and based on the 15th, 80th and 95th
percentiles, which would delimit occasional, habitual, at-risk and problematic
users, respectively (Chow et al.,
2009).
In this case, the percentiles correspond to the EUPTM scores
PC15=42; PC80=73 and PC95=92. Thus,
19.5% of students are at risk, to a greater or lesser extent, for problematic
use of mobile devices, even though they are still just beginning to use them.
Table 3
Classification of
subjects in terms of problematic use of mobile devices
|
|
Frequency |
Percentage |
|
Occasional user |
48 |
17.6 |
|
Habitual user |
172 |
63 |
|
At-risk user |
40 |
14.7 |
|
Problematic user |
13 |
4.8 |
|
TOTAL |
273 |
100 |
On the other hand, regarding the type of parental
mediation (table 4) exercised by families in relation to smartphone use, it can be seen that parents, within the co-use dimension,
48.4% of families talk to their children about what they do on the Internet,
although they do not sit with them while they are using the mobile device
(29.3%). Families seem to actively mediate Internet safety, with percentage
values above 60% in all cases. In the case of monitoring, parents do not
usually check the websites they have visited (30.4%), whereas this is not the
case with e-mails or instant messaging (44.7%). Finally, in relation to
technical mediation, this is least exercised in the monitoring of web pages
(29.7%) and where most control is exercised is in antivirus (45.8%).
As a general remark, we can say that except for active
mediation, less than half of the families exercise some type of parental
mediation with their children with regard to Internet
use via mobile devices.
Table 4
Response percentages
in parental mediation types
|
Dimension |
Items |
Yes |
No |
Don't know |
|
Co-use Would you say that one of
your parents, sometimes … |
Talks to you about what you do on Internet |
48.4 |
41.8 |
9.9 |
|
Sits with you while you use the Internet (watching what you do, but not
actually participating) |
29.3 |
54.2 |
16.5 |
|
|
Is nearby when you are using Internet |
46.9 |
35.5 |
17.6 |
|
|
Encourages you to explore and learn things by yourself on Internet |
44 |
43.6 |
12.5 |
|
|
Shares activities with you on Internet |
38.8 |
48.4 |
12.8 |
|
|
Active mediation in Internet
safety Has either of your parents
ever done any of the following things with you? |
Help you when you have difficulty finding something on Internet |
86.1 |
11.7 |
2.2 |
|
Explain why some websites are good or bad |
75.5 |
15.4 |
9.2 |
|
|
Advise you on how to use Internet safely |
78.4 |
16.1 |
5.5 |
|
|
Suggesting ways of behaving towards other people online |
59.7 |
25.6 |
14.7 |
|
|
Help you when something on Internet has worried or upset you |
62.3 |
21.6 |
16.1 |
|
|
In general, talk to you about what to do if something on the Internet
upsets or annoys you |
60.1 |
27.8 |
12.1 |
|
|
Monitoring When you use Internet at
home, do either of your parents ever check the following things? |
The sites you have visited |
30.4 |
48.4 |
21.2 |
|
The messages in your e-mail or instant messaging account (Messenger,
WhatsApp, Hangouts) |
44.7 |
41.8 |
13.6 |
|
|
Your profile on a social network (e.g., Instagram, Facebook, Snapchat,
Twitter, etc.) or online community |
37.7 |
45.1 |
17.2 |
|
|
Which friends or contacts you add to your social networking profile
(e.g., Instagram, Tik-Tok, Snapchat, Twitter, etc.) or messaging service
(Messenger, WhatsApp, Hangouts) |
44.3 |
35.9 |
19.8 |
|
|
Technical mediation Do your parents do any of
the following things on the device you use most often at home? |
Parental controls or other software to block certain types of websites
(software that does NOT allow you to visit certain websites or prevent
certain types of Internet activities)? |
43.6 |
43.2 |
13.2 |
|
Parental controls or other software to track the websites you visit
(software that records the web pages you have visited so that you can later
check what you have done on Internet) |
29.7 |
52.4 |
17.9 |
|
|
Having a service or contract that limits the amount of time you spend on
Internet |
31.1 |
54.9 |
19.9 |
|
|
Programs to prevent undesired e-mails or viruses |
45.8 |
36.6 |
17.6 |
When applying Spearman's Rho test, a positive and weak
correlation is observed between co-use and active mediation, monitoring and
problematic mobile use, as well as a moderate correlation with technical
mediation. Active mediation correlates positively and weakly with monitoring
and technical mediation. Monitoring correlates moderately with technical
mediation (Table 5).
Table 5
Correlation
between types of parental mediation and the scale of problematic smartphone use
|
Tests |
Spearman's Rho |
Co-use |
Active mediation |
Monitoring |
Technical mediation |
Problematic use |
|
Co-use |
r |
1.000 |
.255** |
.206** |
.325** |
.120* |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
. |
<.001 |
<.001 |
<.001 |
.048 |
|
|
N |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
|
|
Active mediation |
r |
.255** |
1.000 |
.217** |
.209** |
.037 |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
<.001 |
. |
<.001 |
<.001 |
.543 |
|
|
N |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
|
|
Monitoring |
r |
.206** |
.217** |
1.000 |
.416** |
.064 |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
<.001 |
<.001 |
. |
<.001 |
.295 |
|
|
N |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
|
|
Technical
mediation |
r |
.325** |
.209** |
.416** |
1.000 |
.113 |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
<.001 |
<.001 |
<.001 |
. |
.061 |
|
|
N |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
|
|
Problematic use |
r |
.120* |
.037 |
.064 |
.113 |
1.000 |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
.048 |
.543 |
.295 |
.061 |
. |
|
|
N |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
273 |
The correlation between problematic smartphone usage
and the independent variables was also calculated (table 6), and the only two
variables with which a correlation was found were owning a mobile phone and
time spent using it daily.
Table 6
Correlation
between the independent variables and the scale of problematic smartphone use
|
Tests |
Spearman's Rho |
Problematic use |
|
Do you have your own smartphone? |
r |
-.262** |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
<.001 |
|
|
N |
273 |
|
|
Smartphone use time daily |
r |
.348** |
|
Sig. (bilateral) |
<.001 |
|
|
N |
273 |
The non-parametric tests applied were U-Mann-Whitney
and Kruskal-Wallis (for the contrast of means) according to each case.
Considering the independent variables examined in this
study (sex, course year, father's and mother's educational level, own
smartphone and daily usage time), we found significant differences compared to
the types of parental mediation shown in table 7. Sex only influences active
mediation (p=.011), school year in technical mediation (p=.028), own smartphone
in co-use (p=.030) and father's studies in technical mediation (p=.028). In the
case of the mother's studies, it is relevant that it influences all the
dimensions of parental mediation, perhaps because it is the mother who at this
age is more aware of her children's education, rather than the father.
The only independent variable that was not significant
in any of the cases was the time spent using the mobile phone each day. Boys
scored higher on average on active mediation (x ̅=8.71; dt=2.35) than
girls (x ̅=8.01; dt=2.08), with a small effect size (Hedges' g=0.313). It
therefore appears that parents are more likely to talk to boys than to girls
about the content of the media they access. Primary 6 pupils scored a higher
mean on technical mediation (x ̅=7.31; dt=1.61) than primary 5 pupils (x ̅=6.84;
dt=1.83). The effect size is small in magnitude (Hedges' g=0.27). This means
that the restriction of online content or time spent on the Internet is
exercised to a greater extent with older pupils, perhaps because families are
more aware of the need to control these aspects at these ages than with younger
pupils. Pupils who have their own mobile phone score a higher mean in co-use (x
̅=8.71; dt=1.6) than pupils who do not (x ̅=8.30; dt=2.02), where the
effect size is small (Hedges' g=0.236). It seems that families understand that
if their children already have a smartphone of their own, they should have more
control, in a shared way, over the activities carried out with their children.
Table 7
Contrast tests of
the types of parental mediation with the independent variables
|
Variables |
Statistics |
Co-use |
Active mediation |
Monitoring |
Technical mediation |
|
Sex |
Mann-Whitney U |
|
7597.000 |
|
|
|
Z |
-2.550 |
||||
|
Sig. |
.011 |
||||
|
Course |
Mann-Whitney U |
|
|
|
7586.000 |
|
Z |
-2.198 |
||||
|
Sig. |
.028 |
||||
|
Own smartphone |
Mann-Whitney U |
5371.500 |
|
|
|
|
Z |
-2.175 |
||||
|
Sig. |
.030 |
||||
|
Father’s
education level |
Kruskal-Wallis H |
|
|
|
14.178 |
|
gl |
|
|
|
6 |
|
|
Sig. |
|
|
|
.028 |
|
|
Mother’s
education level |
Kruskal-Wallis H |
16.769 |
13.941 |
14.943 |
20.782 |
|
gl |
6 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
|
|
Sig. |
.010 |
.030 |
.021 |
.002 |
For technical mediation and the father's level of
education, the differences between the groups are shown in table 8. Students
whose fathers had university studies obtained lower averages than those whose
fathers had ESO, Baccalaureate, Intermediate Vocational Training (VT), Higher
Vocational Training or did not know what studies they had. The effect size in
all cases is small except in the ESO-University group, whose effect is large
(Hedges' g=0.806). We can conclude that parents with a higher level of education
exert less restriction on online content or time spent on the Internet than
parents with a lower level of education.
Table 8
Effect size
between groups. Variables: Father's studies and technical mediation
|
t-test for equality of means |
Groups
(Education level) |
|
Hedges’ g |
|
.001 |
Don't
know - University |
7.30, 1.70 - 6.57, 1.48 |
0.46 |
|
.001 |
ESO -
University |
7.82, 1.85 - 6.57, 1.48 |
0.806 |
|
.026 |
Baccalaureate
- University |
7.35, 1.58 - 6.57, 1.48 |
0.521 |
|
.039 |
Intermediate
VT- University |
7.38, 1.89 - 6.57, 1.48 |
0.527 |
|
.028 |
Higher
VT - University |
7.29, 1.7 - 6.57, 1.48 |
0.467 |
For the mother's studies, this variable was
significant with all types of parental mediation (Table 9). In reference to the
type of co-use mediation, we observe that the groups where the differences were
found were between pupils whose mothers have university studies and those whose
mothers have a baccalaureate or whose study levels were unknown. In both cases,
the effect size was moderate, the average being higher in the group of
non-university students. Mothers with higher education engage in fewer shared
activities with the media than mothers with less education.
In terms of active mediation and the mother's studies,
differences were found between pupils whose mothers have university and
baccalaureate studies and those pupils whose mothers’ study levels were
unknown. In the first case, the effect size is moderate tending to high and in
the second case the effect is small. In both cases, the average for pupils with
university-educated mothers was lower. Again, mothers with higher education
explain and discuss the content of the media accessed by their children less than
mothers with a lower educational level.
Differences were also found between pupils with
mothers with ESO and baccalaureate studies, with a large effect size, and those
with ESO and mothers whose study levels were unknown, with a small effect size.
In this case, the mean of pupils with mothers who have an ESO level of studies
is lower in both cases. We can see that on this occasion, mothers with a
baccalaureate level carry out more active safety mediation than those with ESO
studies.
In the case of monitoring and the mother's education,
differences were found between mothers with ESO and baccalaureate education,
the latter having a higher mean, with a moderate effect size tending towards
high (Hedges’ g=0.783). Between students whose mothers have studied ESO
and those whose mothers’ educational level was unknown (higher mean), with a
moderate effect size. (Hedges’ g=0.546). Between students whose mothers have
a baccalaureate (higher mean) and higher vocational training, with a high
effect size. (Hedges’ g=0.919). Between baccalaureate (higher average)
and university studies, with a small effect size (Hedges’ g=0.431).
Between intermediate VT (higher average) and tertiary VT, with moderate effect
size (Hedges’ g=0.66). Between VT at tertiary level and those whose
mother’s study level was unknown (higher mean), with a moderate effect size (Hedges’
g=0.670). And finally, between those with university-educated mothers and
those who do not know what studies they have (higher mean), with a small effect
size (Hedges’ g=0.259). Therefore, we do not find a pattern that
indicates a regularity in terms of the mother's higher or lower level of
education being related to the control of children's Internet activities.
Finally, in technical mediation, there are differences
between pupils whose mothers have university studies and those who do not know
what studies their mothers have, whose average is higher. The effect size is
moderate (Hedges’ g=0.552). Between those with mothers with ESO (higher
average) and university studies, with moderate effect size (Hedges’ g=0.629).
And among those whose mothers have baccalaureate /high school (higher average)
and university studies, with moderate effect size (Hedges’ g=0.684).
As with monitoring, in technical mediation, we cannot
conclude that there is a pattern that indicates that the higher or lower the
mother's level of education, the more the mother's restriction of online
content consumption or the time spent online through the application of bans or
technical filters.
Table 9
Effect size
between groups. Variables: mother's education and types of parental mediation
|
Dimensions |
t-test for equality of means |
Groups (Education level) |
|
Hedges’ g |
|
Co-us |
.005 |
Baccalaureate
- University |
9.24, 1.52 - 8.16, 1.58 |
0.678 |
|
.001 |
Don’t
know- University |
9.02, 1.74 - 8.16, 1.58 |
0.513 |
|
|
Active mediation |
.007 |
ESO -
Baccalaureate |
7.79, 1.93 - 9.7, 2.52 |
0.841 |
|
.046 |
ESO -
Don't know |
7.79, 1.93 - 8.7, 2.19 |
0.421 |
|
|
.002 |
Baccalaureate
- University |
9.7, 2.52 - 8.01, 2.06 |
0.791 |
|
|
.011 |
Don’t
know- University |
8.7, 2.19 - 8.01, 2.06 |
0.324 |
|
|
Monitoring |
.011 |
ESO -
Baccalaureate |
6.53, 1.84 - 7.82, 1.33 |
0.783 |
|
.015 |
ESO -
Don't know |
6.53, 1.84 - 7.46, 1.68 |
0.546 |
|
|
.003 |
Baccalaureate
- FP Superior |
7.82, 1.33 - 6.32, 1.78 |
0.919 |
|
|
.018 |
Baccalaureate
- University |
7.82, 1.33 - 6.98, 2.03 |
0.431 |
|
|
.043 |
FP Medio
- FP Superior |
7.5, 1.65 - 6.32, 1.78 |
0.66 |
|
|
.002 |
FP
Superior - Don't know |
6.32, 1.78 - 7.46, 1.68 |
0.670 |
|
|
.034 |
University
- Don't know |
6.98, 2.03 - 7.46, 1.68 |
0.259 |
|
|
Technical mediation |
.001 |
University
- Don't know |
6.55, 1.54 - 7.43, 1.64 |
0.552 |
|
.006 |
University
- ESO |
6.55, 1.54 - 7.58, 2 |
0.629 |
|
|
.005 |
University
- Baccalaureate |
6.55, 1.54 - 7.59, 1.28 |
0.684 |
On the scale of problematic smartphone use, the
variables that were significant are shown in table 10. This was not the case
for the sex, year and father's level of studies variables. Therefore, having
one's own mobile phone or using a mobile phone more per day are directly
related to problematic smartphone use. As with the types of parental mediation,
the mother's level of education also has an influence on problematic smartphone
use.
Table 10
Tests of
problematic smartphone use against the independent variables
|
Variables |
Statistics |
Problematic smartphone
use |
|
Own phone |
Mann-Whitney U |
4177.000 |
|
Z |
-4.326 |
|
|
Sig. |
<.001 |
|
|
Daily mobile phone use |
Kruskal-Wallis H |
33.448 |
|
gl |
3 |
|
|
Sig. |
<.001 |
|
|
Mother's education level |
Kruskal-Wallis H |
14.066 |
|
gl |
6 |
|
|
Sig. |
.029 |
To test for significant differences between groups on
the scale of problematic smartphone use, the calculations shown in table 11
were carried out. Boys and girls who own their own mobile phones obtained a
higher average for problematic smartphone use, with a moderate effect size (Hedges’
g=0.623).
Taking into account the time of use
per day, we can see that the longer the usage time, the higher the mean, with
the effect size being moderate in all cases, except in the case of the two
extremes of the time interval, which was very high. Therefore, we can affirm
that daily usage time has a decisive influence on problematic smartphone use,
as does owning one's own mobile phone, as both factors increase the likelihood
of misuse and are the seeds of future problems.
Finally, considering the mother's education, the
effect size was very high in the case of the extremes, i.e. between pupils with
mothers who only have primary education and those with university-educated
mothers, with the average risk being much higher among pupils in the former
case. In the other two cases, the effect size was moderate.
On this occasion, it seems that the mother's level of
education has a direct impact on children's possible problematic smartphone use
in the sense that, as they have more education, they are able
to have a more positive impact as a protective factor.
Table 11
Effect size
between groups. Significant independent variables and problematic smartphone
use
|
Variables |
t-test for equality of means |
Groups |
|
Hedges’ g |
|
Own phone |
.001 |
Yes - No |
61.46, 17.43 – 50.73, 16.29 |
0.623 |
|
Daily mobile phone use |
.005 |
0 to 30 min – 30 min to 1 hour |
50.51, 15.78 – 57.35, 15.51 |
.435 |
|
.001 |
0 a 30 min – 1 to 3 hours |
50.51, 15.78 – 62.47, 17.26 |
.715 |
|
|
.000 |
0 a 30 min – more than 3 hours |
50.51, 15.78 – 69.94, 19.32 |
1 |
|
|
.022 |
30 min a 1 hour - 1 to 3 hours |
57.35, 15.51 - 62.47, 17.26 |
.309 |
|
|
.001 |
30 min a 1 hour - more than 3 hours |
57.35, 15.51 - 69.94, 19.32 |
.746 |
|
|
.018 |
1 to 3 hours - more than 3 hours |
62.47, 17.26 - 69.94, 19.32 |
.416 |
|
|
Mother's education level |
.016 |
Primary - University |
74.33, 22.05 – 54.04, 15.78 |
1 |
|
.020 |
Baccalaureate - University |
62.71, 16.37 - 54.04, 15.78 |
.543 |
|
|
.000 |
University – Don’t know |
54.04, 15.78 – 62.21, 17.88 |
.494 |
Regarding the MLR of problematic smartphone use, the
results of the model are shown in table 12. The method used was to introduce.
The regression equation was statistically significant F=21.276, p=<.001. The
value of R2=.136 indicates that 13.6% of problematic smartphone use can be
explained by mobile phone ownership and time spent using a mobile on a daily basis.The regression equation was 53.619 - 5.633 (own phone)
+ 5.243 (smartphone use time). But as we can see, the proportion of the
variable explained is very low, so we will have to continue investigating which
other variables may be predictors of problematic use.
Table 12
Multiple linear
regression analysis
|
Predictor variables |
F |
R2 |
B |
SE |
p |
|
Model 1 |
21.276 |
.136 |
53.619 |
4.99 |
<.001 |
|
Do you have your own phone? |
-5.633 |
2.621 |
|||
|
Daily smartphone use |
5.243 |
1.108 |
4. Discussion and
Conclusions
Regarding the general objective set out in this
research, it can be concluded that the type of parental mediation that pupils
predominantly rely on is active safety mediation, whereby minors at home are
normally assisted by a responsible adult, who offers the necessary explanations
and advice to surf the Internet safely. These outcomes coincide with the
results of Martínez et al. (2020) and
Bartau-Rojas et al. (2020), where a
preference was shown for enabling strategies and instructional style. This
mediation is also highlighted by Yang et
al. (2021) as the most helpful way to diminish problematic usage of the
mobile device, while achieving a positive effect for the family relationship
between parents and children. This mediation is an exception since, according
to the results obtained, less than half of the parents engage in some kind of
supervision with their offspring regarding Internet use from mobile phones.
Here, we must bear in mind that according to Pérez-Sánchez and Brenes-Peralta
(2022), family interventions are related to the types of use, with active
mediation being the type that most favours appropriate use of the smartphone.
To conclude more precisely, we can point out that
within parental mediation of co-use, the most recurrent action is that of
talking about what is done on the Internet. As stated by Efrati et al. (2024) and Huang et al. (2024), we can point out that
parental accompaniment and shared use, together with communication, help to
moderate the unacceptable uses of smartphones that generate problems. In active
mediation, the most common practice is offering to help with complicated web
searches. In monitoring, what is most important for families is checking the
messages received and sent by their children. And finally, in technical
mediation, the concern for activating programs that help prevent spam and
computer viruses is highlighted. The truth is that, in any type of mediation,
family support is important and necessary, as it improves children's
self-esteem and enriches the time spent on screens (Kim, 2022). In general
terms, the results on problematic mobile phone use indicate that most students
are not at high risk. However, these data may reflect that they are not yet
very immersed in smartphone use and are therefore still distanced from its
potential risks. These results are in line with those reported by Besolí et al. (2018), those who pointed out
that the higher the grade and age, the more inappropriate uses and risks exist.
In this sense, children justify the problematic use of
mobile phones through the community, highlighting that all their friends have
their own devices. This statement is confirmed by the data collected in the
study, as the majority of the third-grade primary
pupils surveyed, as also demonstrated by Solera-Gómez et al. (2022) - had their own mobile device on which they also tend
to spend an average of 1 - 3 hours a day using Internet.
One of the most relevant findings of the study and,
therefore, one of its main contributions, are the significant differences found
between the independent variables (sex, year, father's and mother's level of
education, own mobile phone and usage time daily) and the types of parental
mediation. Gender influences only active mediation, the father's educational
level and course of study have an impact on technical mediation, device
ownership affects co-use and the mother's educational level impacts all types of
parental mediation. Jiménez-Morales et
al. (2020) pointed out that there are certain family profiles and
characteristics that can act as protective or risk factors, with a high level
of education being a favourable point, especially maternal education. Daily use
each time is the only independent variable that did not significantly influence
parental mediation.
The relationship of the variables mentioned with
problematic smartphone use is also noteworthy: having one's own mobile phone,
the daily usage time and the level of education of the mother are decisive
(with a higher risk among pupils whose mothers have a primary school education
and a lower risk among those whose mothers have attended university), leaving
behind the influence of the father's education level, sex and school year.
Thus, as observed by Sada Garibay et al.
(2024), those caregivers who are most nourished with information are most
likely to reduce misuse and encourage desired usage. In this way, we can affirm
the importance of parental training in this new and necessary parental
competence, which, as noted by Nagy et
al. (2023), knowing how to mediate smart devices is already part of the
complex set of contemporary parenting skills.
According to Gruchel et al. (2022), the motivational factor of adults in dealing with
the issue is significant, and this has a positive influence on children who
appreciate that their primary caregivers instruct them on practical and
educational use of the technological elements that have Internet access. For
this reason, and to conclude, we can point to the need to train families on the
types of parental mediation in order to reduce and
avoid the possible risks involved in the use of mobile devices in the hands of
minors. Although awareness and involvement are gradually growing, as according
to López-Ordosgoitia et al. (2025),
adults must learn to regulate and accompany their interaction with small
screens in order to promote the advantages and
opportunities they offer.
Thus, for those parental profiles that have fewer
competences and less information, and as a contribution,
educational-communicative guides such as the one drawn up by Ramírez-García et al. (2022), in which caregivers can
find guidance on this issue.
As the main limitation of the research, we point out
the number of subjects in the sample, which only allows us to approach the
specific context studied without being able to generalise these results to
other contexts.
Finally, we highlight a clear future line and proposal
for research: the reproduction of this work, but with the subjects involved in
parental mediation, in order to delve more deeply into the supervisory actions
and family perspectives, and, above all, to investigate even further the
relationship between the socio-demographic variables of families and the
problematic use of mobile phones by minors as an issue that concerns us so much
and which we must alleviate.
Author contributions
Conceptualization,
A.D.G.R., A.H.G. and C.P.M.; Data curation, A.D.G.R. and M.P.G.A.; Formal
analysis, A.D.G.R. and M.P.G.A.; Funding acquisition, A.D.G.R. ; research,
A.D.G.R. and A.H.G; methodology, A.D.G.R. and M.P.G.A.; project management,
A.D.G.R. and M.P.G.A.; resources, A.D.G.R. and A.H.G.; software, A.D.G.R. and
M.P.G.G.A.; supervision, A.D.G.R. and M.P.G.A.; validation, A.D.G.R. and
M.P.G.A.; visualization, A.D.G.R. and A.H.G.; drafting-preparation of the
original draft, A.D.G.R., M.P.G.A., A.H.G. and C.P.M.; drafting-revising and
editing, A.D.G.R., M.P.G.A., A.H.G. and C.P.M.
Funding
R&D project
"Instagrammers and YouTubers for the transmedia
empowerment of Andalusian citizens. The media competence of Instatubers"
(P18 -RT- 756). Funded by the Consejería de Transformación Económica,
Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades (Junta de Andalucía).
Data Availability Statement
The data set used in this study is available
upon reasonable request to the corresponding author
Ethics approval
Not aplicable
Consent for publication
All authors have consented to
the publication of the results obtained by means of the corresponding consent
forms.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest
Rights and permissions
Open Access. This
article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any
medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and
indicate if changes were made.
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